A1] TYPES OF DATA:
The CODATA Task Group on Accessibility and Dissemination of Data (CODATA/ADD) while working on its report on the Problems of Accessibility of Data evolved a scheme according to which the following categories of scientific data are formed:
1. Data with reference to time factor:
Based on time factor, data can be classified into the following two types:
a. Time-independent data: This refers to the data, which can be measured repeatedly, e.g. data in Geosciences and Astronomy such as geological structures, rocks, fixed stars etc.
b.Time-dependent data: These can be measured only once, e.g. certain geophysical or cosmological phenomena like volcanic eruption and solar flares. Like wise, data pertaining to rare fossils are time dependent data.
2. Data with reference to location factor:
Date with reference to location factor can be categorized as follows:
a. Location independent data: These are independent of location of objects being measured e.g. Data on pure Physics and Chemistry.
b.Location dependent data: These are dependent on the location of the objects measured. Data in Earth Science & Astronomy normally belong to this category. Data on rocks are also location dependent.
3. Data with reference to mode of generation:
Under this category one can identify three types of data viz.
a. Primary Data: Data are primary when obtained by experiment or observation that is designed for such measurement e.g. values of velocity derived by measuring length and time.
b.Derived (Reformatted) Data: Combination of several primary data with the aid of a theoretical model derives these data
c. Theoretical (Predicted) Data: these are derived by theocratical calculation. Basic data such as fundamental constants aroused in theoretical calculations. E.g. data concerning solar eclipse are predicted with the use of celestial mechanics.
4. Data with reference to nature of quantity/values:
These are categorized in the following two classes:
a. Determinable Data: Data that takes definite value under given condition is known as determinable data. Time dependent data are usually determinable data, if the given condition is understood to include the specification of time.
b.Stochastic Data: Data relating to quantity which takes fluctuating values from one sample to another, from one measurement to another, under given condition are referred to as stochastic in nature.
5. Data with reference to terms of expression:
On the basis of terms of expression one can classify data into:
a. Quantitative Data: These are measures of quantities expressed in the terms of well defined units by changing the magnitude of the quantity to a numerical value. Most data in Science are quantitative data.
b.Semi-quantitative Data: These data consists of affirmative or negative answers to posed questions concerning different characteristics of the object involved, e.g. in Biology classification of organisms is based upon a set of “Yes” and “No” and can be coded as “1” and “0”(zero) for obtaining numerical data.
c. Qualitative Data: Data expressed in terms of definitive statements concerning specific object is qualitative in nature. Qualitative data in this sense is almost equivalent to established knowledge.
6. Data with reference to mode of presentation:
These are categorized as numerical, graphic and symbol data.
a. Numerical Data: These Data are presented in numerical values, e.g. most quantitative data falls in this category.
b. Graphic Data: Here data are presented in graphic form or as models. In some cases, graphs are constructed for the sake of helping users grasp a mass of data by visual perception. Charts and maps also belong to this category.
c. Symbolic Data: These are presented in symbolic form, e.g. symbolic presentation of weather data.
These are six basic types of scientific data based on the nature of data. Within these six types, there exist fifteen different classes of data.
1. Data with reference to scale of measurement:
Based on the scale of measurement, data can be categorized as follows:
a. Nominal Data: The Nominal scale is used for assigning numbers as the identification of individual or a unit. For example, the classification of journals according to the discipline they belong to may be considered as nominal data. If numbers are assigned to describe the categories, the numbers represent only the name of the category.
b. Ordinal Data: It indicates the ordered or graded relationship among the numbers assigned to be observations made. These numbers cannot be rank of different categories having relationship in definite order. For example, to study the responsiveness of information center staff a researcher may assign “1” to indicate poor, “2” to indicate average, “3” to indicate good and”4” to indicate excellent. The numbers 1,2,3 and 4 in this case are of ordinal data which indicates data 4 is better than 3, which in turn is better than 2 and so on. The ordinal data shows the direction of the different and not the exact amount of difference.
c. Interval Data: Interval data are ordered categorizes of data and the differences between various categories are of equal measurement. For example, we can measure the IQ (Intelligence Quotient) of a group of children. After assigning numerical value to the IQ of each child, the data can be grouped in interval of 10, like 0 to 10, 10 to 20, 20 to 30 and so on. In this case,”0” does not mean the absence of intelligence and children with IQ 20 are not double intelligent than children with IQ 10.
d. Ratio Data: Ratio data are the quantitative measurement of a variable in term of magnitude. In ratio data, we can say that one thing is twice or thrice of another as for example, measurement involving weight, distance, price etc.
2. Data with reference to continuity:
Data with reference to continuity can be categorized as follows:
a. Continuous Data: Continuous data are an infinite set of possible values. Between the upper and lower limit of a range there can be infinite number of possible values. For example, height of an individual is not restricted to values like 155cm. It can be 155.59 cm or 155.596 cm.
b. Discrete Data: Discrete data are finite or potential countable set of values. For example the number of members in an organisation can be 3,575 or 3,576 but certainly not 3,575.5. Similarly the numbers of citizens in a country, the number of vehicles registered are the example of discrete data.
3. Data with reference to number of characteristics:
Data can also be categorized on the basis of number of variables considered. These are:
a. Univariate Data: Univariate data are obtained when one characteristics is used for observation, e.g., the performance of student in a given class.
b. Bivariate Data: Bivariate data results when instead of one, two characteristics are measured simultaneously, e.g., height and weight of tenth class students.
c. Multivariate Data: Multivariate data consists of observations on three or more characteristics, e.g., family size income and saving in a metropolitan city in India
4. Data with reference to time:
There are two types of data under this category. These are :
a. Time Series Data: Data recorded in a chronological order across time are referred to as time series data, it takes different values at different times, e.g., the number of books added to a library in different years, monthly production of steel in a plant, yearly intake of students in an university.
b. Cross-Sectional Data: This refers to data for the same unit or for different units at a point of time, e.g., data across sections of people, region or segment of the society.
5. Data with reference to origin:
Data under this category are grouped as:
a. Primary Data: The data obtained first hand from individuals by direct observation, continuous measurement or by interviews or by mailing a questionnaire are called primary data. It may complete enumeration or sample survey, e.g., data collected from a market survey.
b. Secondary Data: The data collected initially for the purpose and already published in Books, Monographs etc.
Data can also be:
a. Numerical Data: All data in Science are derived by measurement and stated in numerical values. Most of the time their nature is numerical. Even in semi quantitative data, affirmative and negotiable answers are coded as “1” and “0” for obtaining numerical data.
b. Descriptive Data: Science is not known for descriptive data. However qualitative data in Science are expressed in terms of definitive statement concerning objects. These may be viewed as descriptive data.
c. Graphic And Symbolic Data: Graphic and Symbolic data are modes of presentation. They enable users to grasp data by visual perception. The natures of data in these cases are graphical.
d. Enumerative Data: Most data in Social Science are enumerative in nature; however, they are refined with the help of statistical technique to make them more meaningful. They are known as statistical data. This explains the use of different scales of measurement whereby they are graded.
e. Descriptive Data: All qualitative data in Social Science can be descriptive in nature. This can be in form of definitive statement. However, if necessary numerical values can be assigned to descriptive statements, which may then be reduced to numerical data.
A2] TYPES OF INFORMATION CENTERS:
Sometimes a terminology controversy arises with regard to documentation information services. Many use and interpret the term information service to include ‘documentation’. The term ‘information’ and ‘documentation’ are not identical. The term ‘information’ does not merely mean the task of collecting sources of information, such as abstracts, indexes, reviews and the like. Information Service has succinctly been defined as “services provided by or for any information center which draws attention to information processed in its department in anticipation of demand; this is done by preparing and circulating news sheets, literature surveys, reading lists, abstracts, particulars of articles, in current periodicals etc. which is anticipated, will be of interest to potential users of the service.” Information should therefore signify the ‘Structure and Qualities of facts and data, and the process of their dissemination’.
In this context information science is understood as a scientific discipline which examines the structure and the qualities of scientific information and investigates the laws, theory, history, methodological organisation of scientific information and documentation. Information Science can be seen as an inter-disciplinary science that investigates the properties and behaviour of information, the forces governing the flow of information and the means of processing it for optimum accessibility and usability. As an interdisciplinary science it draws upon the skills and knowledge of behavioral science cybernetics, general system theorists, managers, computer architects, engineers etc.
Edward L. Brady in his article “The Information Analysis Centre and Its Role in the Processing and Transfer of Technical Information” identifies three distinct types of information centers.
a. First is the research oriented group working with primarily with formal, published literature.
b. Second is the problem solving group that obtains its input not only from the formal literature but from government reports, individual literature and other informal communications and
c. Third is the research oriented group whose input is primarily raw observational data, usually of multinational studies such as weather, oceanography or astronomy.
With a board perspective, the information centers can be grouped as
· By specialised interest.
· By ownership.
· By level of service.
· By variety of service provided.
· By type of material.
· By service in terms of users.
By Specialised area of Interest:
Those institution that cater to specialists working on different subject areas of research, mission oriented projects, special kinds of information or information from particular regions.
1. Subject Fields: Information Centers devoted to subjects like Science, Social Science, Business and Management, Technology, Engineering, Agriculture etc.
Examples:
- Science and Technology – Indian National Scientific
- Social Science –
2. Mission Oriented: Information Centers devoted to missions, sectors etc. of national economy.
Examples:
- Defense Scientific Information and
- Environmental Information System,
3. Kinds of Information: Information Centers dealing with a particular kind of information like industrial information, bibliographical information, management information etc.
Examples:
- Business and Industrial Information – Small Enterprises national Documentation Center (SENDOC),
- Management Information –
- Bibliographic Information – INSDOC, NASSDOC,
4. Geographical Region: Information Centers concerning a particular geographical region.
Examples:
By Ownership:
Those institutions those are owned funded and run by government agencies or learned societies or professional associations or private agencies.
- Government Information Centers:
- Indian National Scientific
- Semi-Government Information Centers:
- Information center For Iron and Steel, SAIL,
- Autonomous Body Information Centers.
- Private Information Centers:
- Institute of Scientific Information,
5. International Information Centers:
- International Patent Documentation Center (INPADOC), Vienna.
- Trade Information Service,
By Level of Service:
These are institutions that operate at the global, regional, national or local levels.
1. Global Information Systems/Centers: Usually have decentralized input, centralized processing and decentralized dissemination or output of information.
Example:
· International Nuclear Information System, INIS, Vienne .
· International Information System for the Agriculture Science and Technology (AGRIS), FAO, Rome
2. Regional Information Center
Example:
· SAARC Documentation Center
3. National Information Center
Example:
· Thailand National Documentation Center , Bangkok
· Institute of Scientific and Technical Information, China
· INSDOC, India
4. Regional Information Center
Example:
· INSDOC Regional Center at Bangalore , Calcutta and Madras
5. Sectorial Information Center
Example:
· NISSAT Sectorial Centers.
· National Information Center for Food Science and Technology, Mysore
· National Center on Bibliometrics, INSDOC, New Delhi
6. Local Information Center
By Variety of Services Provided:
Those institutions that offer varied special service to users.
a. Current Awareness Services.
b. Abstracting and Digest Services.
c. Product Information Services.
d. Data Bank.
Center for Monetary Indian Economy, Mumbai furnishes all these variety of services with reference to Indian Economy and trade, export and import etc.
By Type of Material:
They are those institutions that offer information in the form of special material like patents, standards etc.
- Standards – BIS (Bureau of Indian Standards),
- Patents – Indian Patent Information System,
- Engineering Drawings.
- Audio-Visual Material – Many private organisations has come to develop such collection, UGC promotes educational A/V materials.
By Service in Terms of Users:
Institutions that cater to special category of users and are set-up keeping in view the specific needs of users.
- Research and Development Users.
- Research, Production and Industrial Users.
- Government Users.
A3] TYPES OF INFORMATION SOURCES:
It is usual to classify the sources of information in to three categories:
1. Primary Sources:
This is original material, which has not been filtered through interpretation, condensation or evaluation by a second party. The scientist’s first report in a journal is primary material. Other forms of primary first hand material include what is found is sources such as research reports, conference proceedings, patents, standards, trade literature, theses, research monographs etc.
The original reports of scientific and technological investigations make up the bulk of what is known as primary literature. Some of these records may be largely observational (e.g., reports of scientific expeditions), or descriptive (e.g., some trade literature) but most of them are accounts of experiments with finding and conclusions. A piece of research is not regarded as complete until the results are made available publicly and it is a basic principle of scientific investigation that sufficient detail should be given to enable the work described to be repeated (and therefore double checked) by any competent investigator.
These contributions then represent new knowledge (at least new interpretation of old knowledge) and constitute the latest available information. They are published in variety forms:
a. Periodicals (Many of these are solely devote to reporting to original work).
b. Research Reports.
c. Conference Proceedings.
d. Reports of Scientific nature.
e. Official Publication.
f. Patents.
g. Standards.
h. Trade Literature.
i. Theses.
j. Dissertations.
They also form the archive or permanent record of progress of science available to all, whenever they should wish to see it. In the words of the Royal Society, “Science rests on its published record”.
Many of these materials of course remain unpublished and stay outside the mainstream of scientific progress, but does occasionally become accessible later in their original form, and are often consulted for their historic interest.
Examples:
- Laboratory notebooks, diaries, memoranda etc.
- Internal Research Reports, company files etc.
- Correspondence, personal files etc.
By its very nature, the primary literature is widely scattered and unorganized. It records information as yet unassimilated to the body of scientific and technological knowledge. Although of vital importance, it is difficult to locate and to apply and over a period there has therefore grown up a second tier of more accessible information source.
2. Secondary Sources:
All secondary publications depend on primary sources. Secondary source is a material, which has been modified, selected or rearranged for a particular purpose or audience. The secondary sources have no existence of their own independent of the primary sources. They contain systematized repacked knowledge rather than new knowledge. Due to their very nature they are more easily available than the primary sources. Secondary sources include indexing and abstracting periodicals (services); reviews of progress; ready reference books (encyclopedia, dictionaries, handbooks, tables, formularies etc.); treatise; monographs; textbooks etc. These are complied from the primary sources and are arranged according to definite plan. And they organize the primary literature in more convenient form. In many cases they are more self-sufficient than the primary sources.
Examples:
1) The periodicals (a number of these specialize in interpreting and commenting on developments reported in the primary source).
2) Indexing and abstracting services.
3) Reviews of progress.
4) Reference books.
· Encyclopedias.
· Dictionaries.
· Handbooks.
· Tables.
· Formularies.
5) Treatise.
6) Monographs.
7) Textbooks.
In addition to repackaging the information from the primary literature many of these have the further useful function of guiding the worker to the original document. In other words they serve not only as repositories of digest facts, but as bibliographical keys to to the primary sources.
3. Tertiary Sources:
Tertiary sources of information contain information thrice removed from the primary sources. It is the usual province of yearbooks and directories; bibliographies; bibliography of bibliographies; guide to the literature; list of research in progress; guide to libraries and sources of information; guide to organisations etc.
It is possible to distinguish a less well defined group of source the main function of which is to aid the researcher in using the primary and the secondary source. They are unusual in that most of them do not carry subject knowledge at all.
Examples:
1) Yearbooks and directories.
2) Bibliographies.
· Lists of books.
· Location lists of periodicals.
· Lists of indexing and abstracting services.
3) Guide to the literature.
4) List of research in progress.
5) Guide to libraries and sources of information.
6) Guide to organisations.
A4] COMMUNICATION SYSTEM:
Communication at its most basic level involves three elements – the source, the message and the destination and these components are always present regardless of the size or sophistication of the system. This can be presented as below:
Here the Source and Destination refers to the information provider and receiver at two different ends of the communication process. Encoding is a process where all messages to be sent via the communication channel is coded in the form which facilitates the transmission of information in the communication media - the cable. Channel is the means by which the information is carried. Channels are not perfect because of distortion. This is referred as noise in communication system. This leads to data loss or delay in the communication of information. Noise is the term used in communication theory for anything that causes the message at the receiver to be different from the message that went into the transmitter. Decoding is the process of decoding of the encoded information at the receiver’s end. Numerous methods are used to ensure that message are properly received and communicated. These methods could be repetition of important words or figures, conformity letters or fax messages, multiple copies of the messages etc., these issues are explained in detail in the following paragraphs.
Information Source: Source is the point at which information, message or the news originates. A source could be a person or an institution. It is the starting point in the communication process. In the case of a book, the author of the book is the information source. Researchers, specialists in different fields of study are the generators of information and hence, could be considered as Information Source.
Encoder: The function of the encoder is to translate the thought or ideas into words, signs, signals etc., which combined together constitutes a message or information. By giving a class number or subject heading to a book we actually encode the thought content of the book.
Message: It is meaningful representation of the original thought of the information source. Message could be considered as the verbalization of the ideas through language. However, messages could be non-verbal also in the form of signs, symbols, gestures etc. The information contained in a book or article in a journal represents the message of the author or in other words his thought content.
In case of long distance communication, the message must be converted into a signal which represents it and which also suitable for transmission over the given communication channel. The signals themselves are generally speaking electrical, electronic or electromagnetic. Signals may be classified into analogue or digital. In conventional voice telephone system, the changes in pressure at the microphone are represented by a corresponding variation in electrical voltage. The continuous variable wave is an example of an analogue signal. In contrast, communication between computers, systems involve the transmission of data represented by discrete pulses of fixed amplitude representing 0 and 1 i.e. they transmit digital signals.
Channel: The medium through which a message is sent is called channel. In other words channels are the transmission media through which the message travels from the source to the destination. In case of and oral communication, the channel is the air surrounding the speaker and the listener. In case of written communication, pen and paper is the transmission channel. In radio broadcasting, radio waves constitute the transmission channel. Electromagnetic transmission channels could be classified as bounded media and free space. Bounded media include twisted pair of wires, coaxial cables, optical fibers etc. Free space is utilized for transmission between antennas or radar sources and sensors.
In an information institution, the communication process involves the use of print as well as non print media as the channels of communication. A book or a journal is an example of printed channels of communication while non print media may range from microforms, audio-video cassettes to CD-ROM databases.
Noise: Noise in the communication process refers to anything that interferes with the message or information to be communicated in any way. All communication process or systems are subject to this unwanted disturbance or interference, which is not part of the signal but can cause it to break up or otherwise degrade it. Any redundant data could be referred to as noise in the information to be communicated.
Decoder: The process of translation of the messages or information by the receiver is known as decoding. The function of the decoder is therefore, to interpret the information or messages. A decoder could be anything ranging from human beings, telephone receiver to computers. In the case of electromagnetic transfer of information through various types of channels, the message is transformed into signals before being transferred. At the receiver end, the signals need to be transformed back into original form, which is done by the decoder.
Receiver: The receiver is a person or equipment who receives the message transmitted by the source. In oral communication the listener is the receiver of the message. In case of electromagnetic communication system, the telephone, radio, fax, television, computer etc. constitute the receivers of information.
In the case of oral communication, the listener is the receiver as well as the final destination in the communication process. However, in the case of electromagnetic communication process, equipment like the telephone, radio, fax, television, computer etc. are the receivers but the final destination is the person or group of persons for whom the message is meant. The final destination could be a single person in the case of interpersonal communication, or it could be large number of persons as in the case of mass communication.
A5] RECORDS MANAGEMENT:
Most organisations must maintain records in order to do business. Over time an organisation can accumulate paper documents such as files, memos, notebooks, reports, contacts etc. by the thousand, as well as computer files and instrumentation data. Some organisations have formal records management programs while others have no one officially responsible and everything is kept indefinitely. Davies defines record management as the systematic control of records from the point of their creation to the point either of their destruction or inclusion into archive.
The driving forces for the introduction of a good record management policy are:
- Statutory requirements – legal obligations.
- A protection against litigation – proof of process.
- Intellectual property – preservation of patents, trademarks etc.
- Disaster recovery – ensure safety of records from damage.
- Continuity – evidence of past and history.
- Corporate memory – effective use of resources in an organisation.
Those organisations which do not have any type of records management function usually regret it when an important document cannot be found or the organisation falls victim of flood or fire.
The benefits of developing a record management policy and procedure for the organisation greatly offset any costs associated with its development and maintenance. Possible benefits of record management as below are outlined. Good record management ensures quick access to needed results. The issues associated with information policy are deal in a separate unit.
- Quick information retrieval.
- Improved productivity.
- Reduction in labour.
- Centralization of information.
- Elimination of duplicate documents.
- Better utilization of storage space.
- Liability and litigation protection.
- Protection against damage or unauthorized access.
- Protection of business property.
- Compliance with legal requirements.
- Lower operating costs.
Costs reduction in overhead, time efficiencies and proof of compliance; it can really make a positive impact on the organisation’s bottom line. New electronic record keeping environments are evolving every day. These systems help an organisation realize some hard savings in the form of process improvements and workflow. The relationship with the IT department is just as critical here. Optical imaging system requires technical support and careful construction. Haynes recommends the following steps for developing an effective records management strategy. They are:
1. Define needs and audit resources – This includes operational requirements, identification of record creation, strategic requirements and future plans.
2. Construct a policy – A policy should include legal, operational and strategic requirements, the role of records in the organisation and responsibilities for records.
3. Consider constraints that include resources, space and technology.
4. Develop a strategy – A strategy for the organisation of records should address level of use, location, subject content, security and document type.
5. Allocation resources – Staff time, external expertise, hardware and software procurement, installation costs, transfer of records etc.
6. Implementation – Requires careful planning and good project management skills.
A6] LABORATORY EXPERIMENT:
A laboratory experiment is one, which takes place in a laboratory as opposed to a natural setting. Here the investigator, with a view to find out the cause and effect relationship between certain variables.
i. Creates a situation in the laboratory very much akin to nature setting.
ii. Controls all extraneous variables: and
iii. Manipulates independent variables.
In recent years this method has been increasingly used in the field of organization behaviour. Leavitt, Bavelas and others have used this method in their researches on communication networks. Carzo and Yanouzas have used this method in their studies of the effects of tall and flat hierarchies on organizational performance. Staw used this method to test the hypothesis that it is an individual’s knowledge about his performance (high or low) which determines his perception about himself and it is not the other way round as is mostly believed. To examine the validity of this hypothesis he designed the following experiment.
He randomly assigned 60 students to groups of three. Each group was asked to participate in a “Financial Puzzle Task”. Data on the financial history of a firm were given to each group members than given 30 minutes to study these data, hold discussion, and prepare group estimates of the firm’s sales and earning per share for the year. After each group had generated its estimates, it was randomly assigned one of two types of ‘false’ performance feedback:
(a) The group had done “quite well” since the false figure was only off by $10,000. The earnings estimate was accurate within $0.15 per share. The groups performance was in the top 20% of the three-person groups that had previously made the required estimate; or
(b) The group had “not done too well” since the sales estimated was off by $10,000,000, the earnings estimate was off by $100 per share and the group’s performance was in the bottom 20% of three-person groups that had previously made the required estimates.
Finally, each subject was asked to complete a questionnaire, which has a measure of his perception about his ability, communication, satisfaction etc.
The study’s results showed that while actual performance of the two groups did not differ, those who were assigned “high” as opposed to “low” performance feedback had a higher perception of their ability, satisfaction etc.
Advantages:
(1) The experimenter has complete control over laboratory situation. He often does succeed in eliminating the many extraneous influences that may affect the dependent variable.
(2) Measurements in a laboratory are more precise because they are made with precision instruments.
(3) Laboratory experiments have high internal validity. When some cause and effect relation is discovered between two variables in a well executed laboratory experiment one can have considerable confidence in the result because one knows that no other outside variables which were held under check can account for this relationship.
(4) Laboratory experiments can be replicated, i.e., Results of one study can be reproduced in a later study.
Limitations:
(1) Organizational research by laboratory experiments is difficult because it is difficult to create a facsimile of an organization in a laboratory. An ongoing organization is very complex. It has many such properties (e.g., hierarchy of authority, specialization, division of labour, formal communication, rules and procedures, etc.) which cannot be exactly reproduced in a laboratory.
(2) Some phenomena (e.g., natural disasters and the behavior that accompanies them) cannot be studied in the laboratory.
(3) The experimenter cannot manipulate a number of variables (such as age, race, intelligence, etc.,) In any case; it is difficult to successfully manipulate more than three or four independent variables in any given experiment.
(4) Performing laboratory experiments successfully requires high skill on the parts of the experimenter.
(5) Laboratory settings are contrived situations. They lack realism and hence their results may not be generalized to real life situations. They lack external validity. An independent variable under laboratory conditions may have little or on the same variable in the real life situation.
(6) There are ethical and moral objections to the manipulation associated with some experiments.
